Effectiveness of Music-Based Training on Processing Speed and Organizational Planning in Primary School Boys with Mathematical Disorder
Keywords:
processing speed, cognitive impairments, autism, ADHD, learning disabilities, cognitive rehabilitation, child development, intervention, executive functioningAbstract
Objective: This study aimed to investigate the effects of music therapy on processing speed in children with mathematical disorder.
Methods and Materials: A quasi-experimental design was employed, involving 30 children aged 6-12 years diagnosed with various cognitive impairments. Participants were randomly assigned to either the music therapy group (n = 15) or a control group (n = 15). The music therapy intervention consisted of 12 weekly sessions, each lasting 45 minutes, focusing on active music-making and improvisation. The control group received no intervention. Processing speed was assessed using standardized cognitive tasks, including the Stroop Test and the Digit Symbol Substitution Test (DSST), administered before and after the intervention. Data analysis was conducted using paired t-tests and repeated measures analysis of variance (ANOVA).
Findings: Results indicated that children in the music therapy group showed significant improvements in processing speed compared to the control group, as measured by the DSST and Stroop Test. The music therapy group demonstrated faster reaction times and improved accuracy in cognitive tasks, with a medium to large effect size (Cohen’s d = 0.65). No significant changes were observed in the control group. Additionally, improvements in social skills and emotional regulation were reported by caregivers and teachers, suggesting that music therapy had broader benefits beyond cognitive performance.
Conclusion: The findings suggest that music therapy can significantly enhance processing speed in children with mathematical disorder. These results support the potential of music therapy as an effective intervention for improving cognitive functions and overall emotional well-being in this population.
Downloads
References
Abella, M., Vila-Badia, R., Serra-Arumí, C., Vallejo-Rius, G., Colomer-Salvans, A., Rolduà-Ros, J., Del Cacho-Ortega, N., Butjosa, A., Muñoz-Samons, D., Cuevas-Esteban, J., Profep, G., & Usall, J. (2023). The relevance of processing speed in the functioning of people with first-episode psychosis. Journal of psychiatric research, 160, 171-176. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022395623000730
Anggerainy, S. W., Wanda, D., & Nurhaeni, N. (2019). Music Therapy and Story Telling: Nursing Interventions to Improve Sleep in Hospitalized Children. Comprehensive Child and Adolescent Nursing, 42(sup1), 82-89. https://doi.org/10.1080/24694193.2019.1578299
Brydges, C., Ozolnieks, K. L., & Roberts, G. (2015). Working Memory – Not Processing Speed – Mediates Fluid Intelligence Deficits Associated With Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Symptoms. Journal of Neuropsychology, 11(3), 362-377. https://doi.org/10.1111/jnp.12096
Doost Mohammadi, H., Marvizadeh, M., Dadfar, R., & Ayin, T. (2017). The Effectiveness of Creative Storytelling on Creativity and Problem Solving Ability of Preschool Children. Educational researches, 12(49), 99-114. https://edu.bojnourd.iau.ir/article_532492_f485ce726f80336a86b55a8897344aab.pdf
Ghasemtabar, S. N., Hosseini, M., Fayyaz, I., Arab, S., Naghashian, H., & Poudineh, Z. (2015). Music Therapy: An Effective Approach in Improving Social Skills of Children With Autism. Advanced Biomedical Research, 4(1), 157. https://doi.org/10.4103/2277-9175.161584
Gholami, s., & Rashidfar, F. (2019). The Impact of UCMAS Classes on Cognitive Proficiency, Processing Speed and Working Memory of kids. Thinking and Children, 10(1), 195-211. https://doi.org/10.30465/fabak.2019.4620
Gold, C., Voracek, M., & Wigram, T. (2004). Effects of Music Therapy for Children and Adolescents With Psychopathology: A Meta‐analysis. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45(6), 1054-1063. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2004.t01-1-00298.x
Gold, C., Wigram, T., & Voracek, M. (2007). Effectiveness of Music Therapy for Children and Adolescents With Psychopathology: A Quasi-Experimental Study. Psychotherapy Research, 17(3), 289-296. https://doi.org/10.1080/10503300600607886
Hoşgelen, E. I., Akgül, Ö., Akdede, B. B., & Alptekin, K. (2022). Relation between processing speed and social media use in schizophrenia patients. Schizophrenia Research, 248, 290-291. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0920996422003401
Janeh, M., Ebrahimi Ghavam Abadi, S., & Alizadeh, H. (2012). Executive functions of reasoning, planning, organization, and working memory in students with and without mathematical disorders in Tehran province. Quarterly Journal of Exceptional Psychology, 2(5), 21-42. https://jpe.atu.ac.ir/article_2134.html
Khorshidi, S., Shaterian Mohammadi, F., & Pirani, Z. (2024). The Effectiveness of Teaching Metacognitive Strategies on Processing Speed and Organizational Planning in Elementary School Boys with Mathematical Disorder. Journal of Psychological Dynamics in Mood Disorders (PDMD), 3(1), 51-61. https://doi.org/10.22034/pdmd.2024.451627.1077
Kim, J., Wigram, T., & Gold, C. (2009). Emotional, Motivational and Interpersonal Responsiveness of Children With Autism in Improvisational Music Therapy. Autism, 13(4), 389-409. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362361309105660
Klaassen, A.-L., Michel, C., Stüble, M., Kaess, M., Morishima, Y., & Kindler, J. (2024). Reduced anterior callosal white matter in risk for psychosis associated with processing speed as a fundamental cognitive impairment. Schizophrenia Research, 264, 211-219. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0920996423004723
Klyve, G. P., Rolvsjord, R., & Elgen, I. B. (2023). Polyphonic Perspectives: A Focus Group Study of Interprofessional Staff’s Perceptions of Music Therapy at an Inpatient Unit for Children in Mental Health Care. International Journal of Qualitative Studies on Health and Well-Being, 18(1). https://doi.org/10.1080/17482631.2023.2197750
Knapik-Szweda, S. (2019). The Significance of the Process of Music Therapy for Children With Multiple Social and Communication Disabilities. Voices a World Forum for Music Therapy, 19(1). https://doi.org/10.15845/voices.v19i1.2732
Knapik-Szweda, S. (2020). The Effectiveness and Influence of Vocal and Instrumental Improvisation in Music Therapy on Children Diagnosed With Autism. Pilot Study. Journal of Education Culture and Society, 6(1), 153-166. https://doi.org/10.15503/jecs20151.153.166
Köstering, L., Schmidt, C. S. M., Egger, K., Amtage, F., Peter, J., Klöppel, S., Beume, L.-A., Hoeren, M., Weiller, C., & Kaller, C. P. (2015). Assessment of planning performance in clinical samples: Reliability and validity of the Tower of London task (TOL-F). Neuropsychologia, 75, 646-655. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0028393215301020
Moll, K., Göbel, S. M., Gooch, D., Landerl, K., & Snowling, M. J. (2016). Cognitive risk factors for specific learning disorder: processing speed, temporal processing, and working memory. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 49(3), 272-281. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022219414547221
Mostafaa, N., Abdelkreem, M., & Hamdy, M. (2019). Effect of Selected Play Activities Along With Music Therapy on Social and Stereotype Behaviors Among School Age Children With Autism. Egyptian Journal of Health Care. https://doi.org/10.21608/ejhc.2019.272607
Narimani, M., & Soleimani, E. (2013). Effectiveness of cognitive rehabilitation on executive functions (working memory and attention) and academic achievement in students with math disorders. Learning Disabilities, 2(3), 91-115. https://jld.uma.ac.ir/article_129.html?lang=en
Oraki, M., Zare, H., & Attar Ghasabeh, Z. (2017). The effect of cognitive rehabilitation on working memory and academic achievement of children with math disorders. Social Cognition, 6(2), 167-183. https://sc.journals.pnu.ac.ir/article_4853.html?lang=en
Porflitt, F., & Rosas-Díaz, R. R. (2019). Behind the Scene: Cognitive Benefits of Playing a Musical Instrument. Executive Functions, Processing Speed, Fluid Intelligence and Divided Attention / Detrás De La Escena: Beneficios Cognitivos De Tocar Un Instrumento Musical. Funciones Ejecutivas, Velocidad De Procesamiento, Inteligencia Fluida Y Atención Dividida. Studies in Psychology, 40(2), 464-490. https://doi.org/10.1080/02109395.2019.1601474
Pourjaberi, B., Shirkavand, N., & Ashoori, J. (2023). The Effectiveness of Cognitive Rehabilitation Training on Prospective Memory and Cognitive Flexibility in Individuals with Depression. International Journal of Education and Cognitive Sciences, 4(3), 45-53. https://doi.org/10.61838/kman.ijecs.4.3.5
Pourmohamadi, S., & Bagheri, F. (2015). Effectiveness of Mindfulness Training on Automatic Cognitive Processing. Journal of Psychological Studies, 11(3), 141-159. https://doi.org/10.22051/psy.2015.2080
Ruiz, E. H., & Braden, B. B. (2021). Improving a Parent Coaching Model of Music Interventions for Young Autistic Children. Journal of Music Therapy, 58, 278-309. https://doi.org/10.1093/jmt/thab008
Samadani, A. A., Kim, S., Moon, J., Kang, K., & Chau, T. (2021). Neurophysiological Synchrony Between Children With Severe Physical Disabilities and Their Parents During Music Therapy. Frontiers in Neuroscience, 15. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2021.531915
Soleymani, E., Sepehrian, A. F., & Imandoust, H. (2020). The effectiveness of cognitive-metacognitive strategies on information processing speed based on the Stroop test. Clinical Psychology and Personality, 16(1), 21-31. https://doi.org/10.22070/cpap.2020.2833
Soltani Kouhbani, S. (2015). The effectiveness of neurofeedback on executive functions of students with math disorders. International Congress on Complementary and Alternative Medicine,
Van Iterson, L., De Jong, P. F., & Zijlstra, B. J. H. (2015). Pediatric epilepsy and comorbid reading disorders, math disorders, or autism spectrum disorders: Impact of epilepsy on cognitive patterns. Epilepsy & Behavior, 44, 159-168. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yebeh.2015.02.007
Yao, C., Jun, H., & Dai, G.-S. (2024). Predicting Phonological Awareness: The Roles of Mind-Wandering and Executive Attention. International Journal of Education and Cognitive Sciences, 5(2), 1-7. https://doi.org/10.22034/injoeas.2024.454689.1084
Zaremba, D., Schulze Kalthoff, I., Förster, K., Redlich, R., Grotegerd, D., Leehr, E. J., Meinert, S., Dohm, K., Bürger, C., Enneking, V., Böhnlein, J., Repple, J., Opel, N., Jörgens, S., Yüksel, D., Schmitt, S., Stein, F., Kircher, T., Krug, A., . . . Dannlowski, U. (2019). The effects of processing speed on memory impairment in patients with major depressive disorder. Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry, 92, 494-500. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pnpbp.2019.02.015
Downloads
Published
Submitted
Revised
Accepted
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2025 Sara Khorshidi (Author); Fatemeh Shaterian Mohammadi (Corresponding author); Zabih Pirani (Author)
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
